专八人文知识英国篇

I.Land and People

英国的国土与人民

Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英国的不同名称及其各组成部分

1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England.

地理名称：不列颠群岛，大不列颠和英格兰。

2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

官方正式名称：大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国。

3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.

不列颠群岛由两个大岛-大不列颠岛（较大的一个）和爱尔兰岛，及成千上万个小岛组成。

4.Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales.

大不列颠岛上有三个政治区：英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士。

(1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section.

英格兰位于大不列颠岛南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地区。

(2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh

苏格兰位于大不列颠的北部。它有三大自然区：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：爱丁堡。

(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff

威尔士位于大不列颠的西部。首府：加的夫

(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast.

北爱尔兰是英国第四个区域。首府：贝尔法斯特。

5. The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991.

英联邦是曾为英国殖民地的、但现已独立国家所构成的自由联合体。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50个成员国。

II. Geographical Features

英国的地理特征

1.Geographical position of Britain:

英国的地理位置：

Britainis an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.

英国是一个岛国。它位于大西洋北部，与欧洲大陆的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峡和东面的北海将它与欧洲其它部分隔开。

2.The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands; and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands.

英国的西部和北部主要是高地，东部和东南部主要是低地。

III.Riversand Lakes

河流与湖泊

Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m).

本尼维斯山为英国最高峰，海拔1,343米。

Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km).

塞文河是英国最长的河流。全长338公里。

ThamesRiver is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336km).

泰晤士河是英国第二大河，也是英国最重要的河。全长336公里。

Lough Neagh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometres).

讷湖（内伊湖）是英国最大的湖，位于北爱尔兰。面积为396平方公里。

River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland.

克莱德河是苏格兰最重要的河流。

Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（1,085m）

斯诺多尼亚是威尔士的最高点，海拔1,085米。

IV. Climate

气候

1. Britain's favorable climate

英国有利的气候条件：

Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range.

英国属于海洋性气候：冬季不过于寒冷，夏季不过于炎热。全年有稳定可靠的降雨量，气温变化幅度小。

2.The factors that influence the climate in Britain:

影响英国气候的因素：

1）The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer;

环绕四周的海水。冬天，海水可使岛内气温升高，夏天则使气温降低，从而起到平衡季节温差的作用；

2)The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate;

一年四季盛行的西南风和西风在冬季从大西洋带来温暖、潮湿的空气，使气温适宜；

3）The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them.

北大西洋暖流流经不列颠群岛西海岸，使气候变暖。

3.Rainfall

降雨量：

Britainhas a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east.

英国全年降雨量稳定，平均降雨量超过1000毫米。 英国北部、西部雨量较多，但是南部、东部有所缺乏。

V. The People

人口

1.population distribution

人口分布：

Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%).

英国人口约5700万，分布极不均匀，90%是城市人口，只有10%是农村人口。英国人口组成为：英格兰人（81.5%），苏格兰人（9.6%），威尔士人（1.9%），爱尔兰人（2.4%）、北爱尔兰人（1.8%）和其他民族居民（2.8%）。

2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish:

英伦三岛民族的祖先：

The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts.

英格兰人祖先属于盎格鲁-萨克逊人，而苏格兰、威尔士和爱尔兰人的祖先属于凯尔特人。

3.The difference in character

个性差别：

The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past.

威尔士人感情丰富，情绪高涨，热爱音乐，为过去感到自豪。

The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly.

苏格兰人通常被认为严肃、谨慎而且节俭，但是他们同样也热情、大方且友好。

The Irish are charm and vivacity. 

爱尔兰人充满魅力，生性活泼。

4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England:

英格兰南方人和北方人语言上的差别：

Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English; In northern England, regional speech is usually "broader" than that of southern England.

南方人讲的英语接近BBC，北英格兰人的发音通常要比南英格兰人宽。

5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 

威尔士人以这样的方式使他们的语言及文化保持活力：

Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art.

一年中他们有称之为"艺术年会"的歌唱、舞蹈、诗歌节。一年中最重要的节日是全国诗歌音乐比赛。在这些场合会举行威尔士诗歌、音乐、歌唱和艺术比赛。

6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 

北爱尔兰存在的主要问题：

The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group, and the Roman Catholics, who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities.

作为社会主体的新教徒和要求更多社会、政治及经济权利的罗马天主教徒之间的斗争。

7.Immigrants: 

移民：

About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II.

自从二战以来约有三百万人来到英国生活和工作。

VI.英国的起源

The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066)

英国的起源（公元前5000年-1066年）

I).Early Settlers (5000BC-55BC)

早期的居民（公元前5000年-公元前55年）

1．The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians.

人们所知的英国最早居民是伊比利来人。

2．At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland.

约公元前2000年，从现在的荷兰和莱茵兰地区来了宽口陶器人。

3．The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.

约公元前700年，凯尔特人来到不列颠岛。

4．The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.

凯尔特人来到不列颠有三次高潮。

The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.

第一次高潮是约公元前600年盖尔人的来临。

The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.

第二次高潮是约公元前400年布立吞人的抵达。

The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.

第三次是约公元前150年比利其人的到达。

II). Roman Britain (55BC-410AD)

罗马人统治时期的英国（公元前55年-410年）

1.British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation.

有记录的英国历史开始于罗马人的入侵。公元前55年和54年，罗马将军尤里乌斯·恺撒两次入侵英国，均未成功。直到公元43年，克劳迪乌斯才成功占领不列颠。将近四百年里，英国处于罗马人的占领下，但这并非是完全的占领。

2. Roman's influence on Britain.

罗马人对英国的影响

The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britain's natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain.

罗马人修建了许多城镇，道路，澡堂，庙宇和其他建筑物。他们还很好地利用了英国的自然资源。罗马人还把基督教这门新宗教带到了英国。

3.Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain.

罗马对英国影响有限的原因。

First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons.

首先，罗马人把不列颠人当作奴隶阶段的属民来对待。其次，在四个世纪里罗马人从不和不列颠人通婚。最后，罗马人也未影响普通不列颠人的语言和文化。

III). The Anglo-Saxons (446-871)

盎格鲁-撒克逊人（公元446-871年）

1．Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.

英国种族的基础：盎格鲁-撒克逊人

In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.

五世纪中叶，朱特人、撒克逊人和盎格鲁人不断入侵不列颠。这是三支日耳曼（条顿）部落。

The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.

居住在朱特兰岛（现丹麦南部）上从事打渔农耕的朱特人先抵达不列颠。449年，一位朱特族长成为了肯特的国王。后来从德国北部来的使用短剑的撒克逊人在埃撒克斯、苏塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王国，统治期从五世纪末至六世纪初。六世纪后半叶，同样来自德国北部的盎格鲁人，在东盎格利亚、麦西亚以及诺森伯利来定居，同时也他们也把名字给了英国人。这七个主要王国（肯特、埃塞克斯、苏塞克斯、威塞克斯、东盎格利亚、麦西亚和诺森伯利亚），合称为七王国。

2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.

早期盎格鲁-撒克逊人改信基督教。

The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew's Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.

盎格鲁-撒克逊人把日耳曼宗教带到了英国。除了康瓦尔、威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰的凯尔特人还信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597年，教皇格里高一世把罗马圣安德鲁修道院的副院长圣奥古斯丁派遣到英格兰，其使命是使异教徒的英国人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奥古丁成为坎特伯雷大主教。在使国王和贵族皈依基督教方面，奥古斯丁非常成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上归功于北部修士们的传教活动。

3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.

早期盎格鲁-撒克逊人为英国做出的贡献。

The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen）to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.

盎格鲁-撒克逊人为英国国家的形成打下了基础。首先，他们把国家划分为郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法长官负责执法。其次，他们设计的窄条三圃田农耕制延用至18世纪。此外，他们还建立了领地制。最后，他们还创立了议会(贤人会议)，向国王提供建议，这就成为了今天仍存在的枢密院的基础。

VII.英国的形成

The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)

英国的形成（公元1066-1381）

I). Norman Rule (1066-1381)

诺曼统治（公元1066-1381）

1. William's Rule （1066-1087）

威廉一世的统治（公元1066-1087）

Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. 

在威廉统治下，英国的封建制度得到完全确立。

According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king.

根据此制度，国王拥有全国所有土地。威廉把英国的大片土地分给贵族，条件是换取对方服役和收租。这些地产分散于各处，这样土地拥有者就不易联合起来反叛国王。已成为国王土地承租人的贵族又把土地分配给小贵族、骑士和自由民，同样换取货物和服役。在封建等级底层的是农奴。英国封建制独有的特色就是，无论是土地承租人还是二佃户，都必须要宣誓效忠于直接领主，而且要效忠于国王。

2. King Henry II and his reforms

亨利二世国王和他的改革

Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England; recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen; demolished many castles built in Stephen's time; strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen.

亨利二世采取了一些措施巩固君主制。他迫使弗兰德斯雇佣军离开英国，收回史蒂芬森赠出皇室土地；拆除几十座史蒂芬森时造德城堡，加强并扩大了他的行政长官们的权力，依靠由英国自由民组成的民兵获取军事支持。

King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishop's court to the King's court.

亨利二世大大加强了王家法院，扩展了其司法工作的职权范围。他将全国分为六个审制区。案件更多地由巡回法官审理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他统治时期，逐渐建立起超越地方领主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪审员制度代替了旧的残酷的审判制度。他坚持被控犯有刑事罪的神职人员应由国王法庭审判，而不由主教法庭审判。

II).Contents and the significance of the Great Charter

《大宪章》的内容及意义

Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land.

《大宪章》是约翰国王1215年迫于封建贵族的压力而签定的。《大宪章》总共63条，其中最重要的内容是：(1) 未经大议会同意，不得征税；(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产；(3)教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由；（4） 伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权；(5) 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。尽管人们普遍认为《大宪章》为英国的自由奠定了基础，但该宪章只是规定国王和贵族之间封建关系和法律关系的文件，保证了教会的自由，限制了国王权利。《大宪章》的精神是限制国王权力，使其在英国封建法律允许的范围内活动。

III).The origins of the English Parliament

英国议会的起源

The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.

大议会是当今英国议会的原型。1265年，西门德孟福尔召开大议会，各郡有两名骑士，各镇有两名市民参加。大议会发展到后来演变成议会，分为上议院和下议院。其作用是咨询而非决定；也没有选举和政党。议会的最重要的部分是上议院。

VIII.向现代英国的过渡

Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)

向现代英国的过渡

I).Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)

向现代英国的过渡(1455年-1485年)

The Wars of Rose

玫瑰战争

The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.

玫瑰战争是指，从1455年到1485年，以红玫瑰为象征的兰开斯特家族和以白玫瑰为象征的约克家族之间战争。1485年，兰开斯特家族的后代亨利都铎取得了博斯沃恩战役的胜利，建立了都铎王朝。这些战争使英国的封建主义受到致命打击，贵族阶层受到了削弱。

II). The English Reformation

英国的宗教改革

Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and Henry needed money.

最重要的是，亨利八世促成了教会的宗教改革。改革原因有三个主要方面：改革教会的渴望已有多年，现在又受马丁路德成功的鼓舞，许多人认为时机已到；人们痛恨教职人员的威望和财富；亨利需要钱。

The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry's reforms was to get rid of the English Church's connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England's monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England.

改革以争取离婚而开始，以脱离教皇而告终。亨利八世欲与阿拉贡的凯瑟琳离婚，但是教皇拒绝了。亨利改革的目的是摆脱英国教会与教皇的联系，成立独立的英格兰教会。1529年至1534年间英国教会逐渐地与罗马脱离了关系。亨利解散了所有英国的修道院和修女院，因为后者对教皇比对英国国王更忠诚。1534年的《继位法》和1535年的《至尊法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他获"英格兰教会最高首脑"之称号。

Henry VIII's reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry's position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope's power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism.

改革的三大影响：亨利的改革强调了君主权力，自然加强了亨利的地位；议会以往从未做过如此漫长而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加强；他对教皇权力的打击鼓舞许多人批评指责天主教会。英国从此从天主教转向新教。

III). Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年）

Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England wad able to face the danger from Spain.

伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各种观点的妥协。她中断玛丽与罗马的关系，恢复父王独立的英格兰教会，也就是说保持天主教教条及习俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被极端的新教徒（即清教徒）所接受，也不为虔诚的天主教徒所接受。近30年的时间里，伊莉莎白成功地令两大天主教强国法国和西班牙互相厮杀，从而免于英国卷入任何主要的欧洲国的冲突。通过她从未实现的联姻，伊莉莎白设法与法国维持友好关系，因此英国能面对来自西班牙的危险。

IX.大英帝国的兴衰

The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990)

大英帝国的兴衰

I). Whigs and Tories

辉格党人和托利党人

These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688).

这两个政党名称皆起源于1688年的光荣革命。

The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.

辉格党人是指那些反对绝对王权，支持新教徒宗教自由权利的人。辉格党人在19世纪中叶与持不同意见的托利党人组盟组成自由党。

The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.

托利党人是指那些支持世袭王权、不愿去除国王的人。托利党是保守党的前身。

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the "open-field" system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results:

18世纪末、19世纪初的农业革命期间，随着《圈地法》的颁布，传统的"开放田地"制结束。圈地运动持续了将近一个多世纪。农业圈地运动的利弊共存：

(1) Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;

由于大农场兼并了小农场，农场成为越来越大的生产单位；

(2) More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;

人们消费的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越来越多，饮食种类愈加丰富；

(3) Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;

圈地对佃农而言是场灾难，他们被赶出土地，被迫到城镇找工作。圈地运动导致了大规模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陆。

(4) A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships.

农村关系中产生了新的阶级对立。

II). The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)

工业革命（1780-1830）

1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

工业革命指的是17世纪末、18世纪初英国工业的机械化，以及因此而导致的社会结构和经济结构的变化。

2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:

英

国成为第一个工业化的国家，原因如下：

(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;

优越的地理位置：英国地理位置优越，适合参与欧洲与世界贸易；

(2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.

政治局面稳定。17世纪后的英国社会宁静，对海外贸易和殖民地兴趣日增。国际贸易给商人和城市银行家带来财富，他们加上由于新农作法而发家的人们为工业化提供了大笔资金。

(3) Good foundation in economy. The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.

1688年光荣革命限制了君主的权力，这使得强大的经济利益集团能对议会政策施加影响。

(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.

英国的主要城镇皆靠近海港或河流，货物运送便利。

(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.

英国许多河流不仅用于交通，还提供水力及蒸汽动力。英国还有可用的矿产资源。

(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.

英国工程师为训练有素的手工艺人。

(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.

发明家受人尊重，他们解决了实际难题。

(8) Probably laissez faire and "Protestant work ethic" helped.

“放手干”及“新教工作道德”很可能也有助力。

(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.

1707年后，英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士形成关税联盟，1807年后爱尔兰加入。因此，全国市场不再受制于内部的关税障碍。

(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.

圈地运动和其它农业改良为增加的人口提供了粮食，为工厂提供了劳动力，为工业提供了所需的一些原材料。

X.英国经济

I）. The Evolution of the British Economy since the War

战后英国经济发展

The evolution of the British economy since WWII falls into three periods:

二战后英国经济发展可分为三个阶段：

(1) Steady development in the 50s and 60s: The British economy in this period is characterized by slow but steady growth, low unemployment and great material prosperity with rising standards of consumption.

（1）战后50-60年代平稳发展时期。其主要特点是经济缓慢而持续增长，失业率低，物质丰富，人民消费水平不断增长。

(2) Economic recession in the 70s: In the 1970s among the developed countries, Britain maintained the lowest growth rate and the highest inflation rate, and the high record of trade deficits.

（2）70年代经济滞胀。在70年代，英国在所有的发达资本主义国家中，始终保持最低经济增长率，最高的通货膨胀率，和最高的贸易赤字纪录。

(3) Economic recovery in the 80s: An outstanding feature of the economic recovery in the 80s was its length, lasting seven years. Another was the improved financial position of the government, with stronger current account of the balance of payments.

（3）80年代经济复苏。一个显著特点是时间长，复苏持续了7年。另一个特点是国际收支大大盈余，政府金融地位最高。

II）. Measures taken by Mrs. Thatcher's government to improve the economy

撒切尔政府的经济复苏政策

Mrs. Thatcher's government took numerous measures to improve the efficiency of the economy during the past decade, using both macroeconomic and microeconomic policies.

撒切尔政府运用宏观经济政策和微观经济政策，采取了许多措施提高经济效益。

(1) Macroeconomic measures were directed towards bringing down the rate of inflation and achieving price stability.

宏观经济政策直接针对降低通货膨胀率和维持物价稳定。

(2) Microeconomic policies were aimed at working with the grain of market forces by encouraging enterprise, efficiency and flexibility.

微观经济政策旨在通过鼓励实业，效率和灵活性共同努力提高市场竞争力。

III）. Reasons for the British coal mining is called a "sick" industry today.

英国煤矿被称为"生病"工业的原因。

Today the coal industry in Britain is on the decline，the number of miners, collieries and the total output have been falling.

如今的英国煤矿业衰退，从而导致矿工、煤矿的数量和总产量都大大下降。

The reasons for the decline are as follows: exhaustion of old mines, costly operations of extraction, poor old equipment, little investment, fall in demand due to imports of cleaner, cheaper and more efficient fuels, etc.

煤工业衰退的原因包括：老煤矿的枯竭，昂贵的提炼费用，破旧的设备，极少的投资，由于进口更干净、更便宜、更高效的燃料导致的需求下降等等。

IV). Britain's oil and natural gas

英国的石油和天然气

Natural gas was discovered in 1965 and oil in 1970 under the North Sea. Today Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil but also has a surplus for export. The transport and domestic heating systems mostly depend on oil. So does the food supply, because most agriculture is highly mechanized. Modern farming requires things which are all oil-based.

在1965年及1970年在北海发现天然气和石油。今天英国的石油不仅能自给自足，还有盈余供出口。交通和家庭供热系统主要依靠石油，因为大部分农业的高度机械化，食品供应也靠石油。

XI.英国政府机构

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, the head of state is a king or a queen. The United Kingdom is governed, in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty's Government. The System of parliamentarygovernment is not based on a written constitution, the British constitution is not set out in any singledocument. It is made up of statute law, common law and conventions. The Judiciary determines common law andinterprets statutes.

联合王国是君主立宪制国家,国家的首脑是国王或女王。联合王国以君王的名义，由国王或女王陛下政府治理。英国的议会制度并不是基于成文宪法，英国宪法不由单一文件构成，而由成文法，习惯法和惯例组成。司法部门裁定习惯法或解释成文法。

I)．The Monarchy

君主制

1.Elizabeth II, her title in the United Kingdom is "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the UnitedKingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of theCommonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

伊莉莎白二世，她的全称是"上帝神佑，大布列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国以及她的其他领土和领地的女王，英联邦元首，国教保护者伊莉莎白二世。"

2.The Queen is the symbol of the whole nation. In law, She is head of the executive, an integral part of thelegislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces and the "supreme governor"of the Church of England. She gives Royal Assent to Bills passed by parliament.

女王是国家的象征。从法律上讲，她是行政首脑，立法机构的组成部分，司法首脑，全国武装部队总司令，英国国教"至高无上"的领袖。她任命首相和重要的政府官员。对议会通过的法案给予御准。

3.The monarch actually has no real power. The monarch's power are limited by law and Parliament. Constitutionalmonarchy began after the Glorious Revolution in 1688.

君主政体实际已无实权。它的权力受限于法律和议会。君主立宪制是从1688年的光荣革命后开始。

II)．Parliament

议会

1.The United Kingdom is a unitary, not a federal, state. Parliament consists of the Sovereign, the House ofLords and the House of Commons.

英国是中央集权国家，而不是联邦制国家。议会由君主，上议院和下议院组成。

2.The main functions of Parliament are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide, by voting for taxation, the means ofcarrying on the work of government; (3) to examine government Policy and administrations, including proposalfor expenditure; and (4) to debate the major issues of the day.

议会的主要作用是：（1）通过立法；（2）投票批准税为政府工作提供资金；（3）检查政府政策和行政管理，包括拨款提议；（4）当天的议题辩论。

3.The House of Lords is made up of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The main function of the Houseof Lords is to bring the wide experience of its members into the process of lawmaking. In other words, the non-elected House is to act as a chamber of revision, complementing but not rivaling the elect House.

贵族院（上议院）由神职贵族和世俗贵族组成。它的主要作用是用议员的丰富经验帮助立法。换而言之，非选举的上议院是修正议院，补充而非反对由选举产生的下议院。

4.The House of Common is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament (MPs).It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority.

下议院（平民院）由成人普选产生，由651名议员组成。下议院拥有最终立法权。

5.Britain is divided 651 constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons.A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals.

英国被划分为651个选区，每个选区选一名下议院议员。大选必须五年举行一次，但经常不到五年就进行一次选举。

6.Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the ConservativeParty and the Labour Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the Labour Party has held power. Theparty which wins sufficient seats at a General Election to command a majority of Government. The leader of themajority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes theOfficial Opposition, with its own leader and "shadow cabinet ". The rule of Opposition is to help theformulation of policy. Criticizes the Government and debate with the Government.

英国有很多政党，但有两个主要的政党-保守党和工党。从1945年以来，两党一直轮流执政，在大选中获多数议席因而在下议院拥有多数支持者的政党组建政府，多数党领袖由君主任命为首相。获得第二多数议席的政党则正式成为"反对党"，有自己的领袖和影子内阁。反对党的目的是帮助制定政策，它可以经常给政府提出批评性的建议和修正议案。

III).The Cabinet and Ministry

内阁和内阁部长

1. The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministersand informs the Queen at regular meetings of general business of the Government. Cabinet members hold meetingsunder the chairmanship of the Prime Minister for a few hours each week to decide Government policy on majorissues.

首相主持内阁，负责分配大臣们的职能，在定期会见女王时向女王报告政府事务。内阁在 首相的主持下，每周开会几小时，以决定在重大问题上政府的政策。

2. Ministers are responsible collectively to Parliament for all Cabinet decisions; individual Ministers areresponsible to Parliament for the work of their department.

内阁的所有决定由大臣集体向议会负责，各大臣又为各自部门的工作向议会负责。

IV)．The Privy Council

枢密院

1. The Privy Council was formerly the chief source of executive power in the state and give private advice tothe King. So the Privy Council was also called the King's Council in history. Today its role is largely formal,advising the sovereign to approve certain government decrees.

枢密院原来是政府行政权力的源泉，给君主提供"私人"建议。它在历史上也称为国王议会。今天它的主要作用是礼节性的，如建议君主批准政府的法令。

2. Its membership is about 400, and includes all Cabinet ministers, the speaker of the House of Common andsenior British and Commonwealth statement.

它的主要成员有400人左右，包括内阁阁员，下议院院长及英国，英联邦的高级政治家等。

V).Government Department and the Civil Service

政府各部和公务员

1.Commonwealth office, the Ministry of Defense…

主要的政府部门包括：财务部，内务部，外交部，国防部等。

2. Members of the Civil Service are called Civil Services. They staff government departments. Civil Servantsare recruited mainly by competitive examination. Civil servants do not belong to any political party. Changesof Government do not involve changes in departmental staff, There are about 541800 civil servants in Britainnow.

文职人员部的成员被称为公务员。公务员主要是通过竞争考试录用。公务员部门不属于任何政党，政府的变更并不影响部门职员的变更。英国现约有541800名公务员。

VI)．Local Government

地方政府部门

1. There are two main tiers of local authority throughout England and Wales: counties and the smallerdistricts. Now, England and Wales are divided into 53 counties which are sub-divided into 369 districts.

英格兰和威尔士实行两级地方政府制-郡和比郡小的区。现在英格兰和威尔士分为53个郡，郡下分为369个区。

2. Greater London is divided into 32 boroughs.

大伦敦被分为32个行政区。

XII.英国法律与司法机构

There is no single legal system in the United Kingdom. A feature common to all systems of law in the United Kingdom is that there is no complete code. The sources of law include (1) statutes; (2) a large amount of "unwritten" or common law; (3) equity law; (4) European Community. Another common feature is the distinction made between criminal law and civil law.

联合王国不实行完全统一的法律制度。联合王国所有法律制度的一个共同特点是没有以部完整的法典。法典来源包括：（1）成文法；（2）大量的"不成文法"或习惯法；（3）衡平法；（4）欧共体法。另一个共同的特点是刑法和民法之间的区别。

I)．Criminal Proceedings

刑事诉讼程序

1. In England and Wales, once the police have charged a person with a criminal offence, the crown Prosecution Service assumes control of the case reviews the evidence to decide whether to prosecute.

在英格兰和威尔士，一旦警察指控某人犯有刑事罪，皇家检察总署就要接管此案，并独立地审核证据以决定是否起诉。

2. In Britain all criminal trial are held in open count because the criminal law presumes the innocence of the accused until he has been proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt. The prosecution and the defense get equal treatment. No accused person has to answer the question of the police before trial. He is not compelled to give evidence in count. Every accused person has the right to employ a legal adviser to conduct his defense. If he can not afford to pay, he may be granted aid at public expense. In criminal trial by jury, the judge passes sentence, but the jury decided the issue of guilt or innocence. The jury composed of 12 or ordinary people. If the verdict of the jury can not be unanimous, it must be a majority.

在英国，所有的刑事审判都在法院公开进行。因为刑法认为，在消除合理怀疑证明被告有罪之前，他是无辜的。原告与被告同样平等，审判时被告不必回答警察的问题，不许强迫被告提供证据。每位被告都有权雇佣律师为其辩护。如果他不能支付律师费，可以用公用费用提供帮助。在由陪审团进行的刑事审判中，法官判刑，但陪审团决定是否有罪。陪审团一般由12人组成。如果陪审团不能做出一致判决，也必须是多数决定。

3.A verdict of " not guilt" means acquittal for the accused, who can never again be charged with that specific crime.

"无罪"裁决意味着被告无罪，并且永远不得再以此罪名对其指控。

II). Criminal Courts

刑事法庭

1. Criminal Courts in England and Wales

英格兰和威尔士的刑事法庭

Magistrates' Courts which try summary offences and "either way" offences. A magistrates' court, which is open to the public and the media, usually consists of three unpaid "lay" magistrates-known as justices of the peace-who are advised on point of law and procedure by a legally qualified assistant. A Magistrates' court sits without a jury.

治安（警事）法庭，负责审理判决犯罪，也审理"任意方式"罪行。治安法庭对公众和媒体公开，通常由三位无薪的"外行"地方官--地方治安官组成，由懂得法律知识的书记员和助手给他们提供法律规定和程序方面的建议。治安法庭审察时没有陪审团。

Youth Court which try most cases involving people under 18.

青少年法庭，负责审理18岁以下青年的大多数案件。

The Crown Court tries the most serious offences and 'either way" offences referred to it by magistrates. The Crown Court is presided over by High Court judges, full-time circuit Judges and part-time Recorders England and Wales are divided into six circuits for the purpose of hearing criminal case. Each circuit is divided into areas containing one or more centers of High Court and Crown Court.

皇家刑事法庭。负责审理最严重的罪行和由地方法官提交的"任意方式"罪行。皇家刑事法庭由高级法院法官，全职巡回法官和兼任刑事法官主持。为审理刑事案，英格兰和威尔士被分为六个巡回区，每个巡回区又分区域，每个区域有一个或多个高级法庭和皇家刑事法庭。

2. Criminal courts in Scotland

苏格兰的刑事法庭

There are three criminal courts in Scotland.（1）the High Court of Justiciary;(2) the sheriff court;(3) the district court. Scotland has two types of criminal procedure, know as solemn procedure and summary procedure. In solemn procedure, a defendant is tried by a judge sits without a jury.

苏格兰有三种刑事法院：（1）高级法院；（2）郡法院；（3）区法院。英格兰有两种刑事诉讼：庄重诉讼和即决诉讼。庄重诉讼里，被告由陪审团和法官审理。在即决诉讼中，法官独自审理，不用陪审团。

3. Criminal courts in Northern Ireland

北爱尔兰的刑事法庭

Cases involving minor summary offences are heard by magistrates' courts presided over by a full-time legally qualified resident magistrate. County courts are primarily civil law courts. The Crown Court deals with criminal trails on indictment.

涉及轻微即决犯罪的案件由治安法庭听审，法庭由全职的法律合格的常驻治安法官主持。郡法庭主要是民事法庭。皇家刑事法庭根据起诉进行刑事审判。 

XIII.英国社会

I). Health and Social Services

全国医疗保健

1. Britain is regarded as a welfare state. Thissystem is funded out of national insurancecontributions and taxation. In Britain the term appliesmainly to the National Health Service (NHS), national insurance and social security.

英国被认为是福利制度的国家。此制度的所需资金来源于全国保险税和赋税。在英国，这主要是指国民保健制度，国民保险和社会保障制度。

2. The National Health Service provides for every resident, regardless of income,a full range of medical services. The service was established in the U.K. in 1948.Over 82 per cent of the cost of the health service in Great Britain id funded out ofgeneral taxation. The rest is met from: (1) the NHS element of National Insurancecontributions; (2) charges towards the cost of certain items such as drugs prescribedby family doctors, and general dental treatment; (3) other receipts, including landsales and the proceeds of income generation schemes.

不管个人收入如何，国民保健制度为每个居民提供全面医疗服务。英国于1948年确立此制度。英国国民保健制度82%以下的费用来自普通税收，其他部分来自（1）国民保险金中的国民保险金部分；（2）象对家庭一生开的药单和普通牙科治疗所收的费用；（3）其他收入，包括出售土地和增收计划的收益。

3. There are proportional charges for most types of HNS dental treatment,including examinations. Sight test are free to children. No one is liable to be chargedby the National Health Service for treatment in an accident, emergency or for aninfectious disease. Central government is directly responsible for the NHS, which isadministered by a range of local health authorities and health boards throughout theU.

国民保健制度中多数牙科治疗都要收取一定比例的费用，包括检查费。视力检查对儿童免费。国民保健制度对事故，急诊或传染病的治疗不收费，中央政府直接负责国民保健制度，由全国各地的保健机构和卫生委员会实施。

4. The family health services are those given to patients by doctors, dentists,opticians and pharmacists. In order to obtain the benefits of the NHS a person mustnormally be registered on the list of a general practitioner (GP, sometimes knows asa "family doctor").

家庭保健服务由医生、牙医、眼科大夫和药剂师提供给病人。为获得国民保健制度的服务，人们必须在普通开业医生的名册上注册。

5. A full range of hospital services is provided by district general hospital. Thereare also specialist hospital or units for children, people suffering from mental illness,those with learning disabilities, and elderly people, and for the treatment of specificdiseases.

地区普通医院提供全面的医院服务。也有为儿童，精神病人，有学习障碍者，老人和特殊病人开设的专门医院或病区。

6. The National Health Service is the largest single employer of labour in the U.K.NHS has suffered from underfunding in recent decades, as a result of which manybetter-off people have been turning to private medical health care.

国民保健制度是英国最大的用人机构。近几十年来，因为资金不足，许多比较富裕的人正逐渐转向私人的医疗保健机构。

7. Personal social services in Britain assist elderly people, disabled people, peoplewith learning disabilities or mental illness, children, and families facing specialproblems. These statutory service are provided by local government social servicesauthorities.

在英国，个人社会服务向老人，残疾人，有学习障碍者，精神病人，有特殊家庭困难的人等。地方政府社会服务委员会提供法定援助。

II). social Security

社会保险

1. The social security system is designed to secure a basic standard of living forpeople in financial need. Nearly a third of government expenditure is devoted to thesocial security programme which provides financial help for people who are elderly,sick, disabled, unemployed, widowed, bringing up children or on very low incomes.

社会保险制度设立的目的是保障经济困难的人们的基本生活水平，政府开支的近三分之一用于社会保险计划。此计划给老人，病人，残疾人，失业者，寡妇，抚育幼儿者或低收入者提供经济帮助。

2. Administration in Great Britain is handled by separate executive agencies ofthe Department of Social Security. In Northern Ireland by the Social Security Agency.

大不列颠的社会保险由社会保险部独立执行机构管理，在北爱尔兰则是社会保险局。

3. contributory social security benefits, it include:( 1) retirement pension; (2)unemployment pension; (3) sickness and invalidity benefit and (4) Maternityallowance and widows's benefits.

需要先交费的社会安全福利（个人有工作收入时交，无收入时领），其中包括：退休金，失业金，病残福利金，孕产期补助金，寡妇补助金。

4. non-contributory social security benefits, it include: (1) war pensions;(2)industrial injuries disablement benefit;(3) child benefit and (4) family credit.

不需要先交费的福利金，包括战争伤亡抚恤金，工伤致残救济金，儿童补助金，低收入家庭补助金。

III). Religion

宗教

1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out interferencefrom the community or the State. He may change his religion at will may manifesthis faith in teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor maybe a Roman Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to members of allchurches or none.

在英国，人人都有信仰宗教的权利，社会和政府不得干涉。他可以随意改变宗教信仰，可以在教职，礼拜或仪式中表明他的信仰。除了英国大法官可以是罗马天主教徒外，公共职务对各种信仰或没有信仰的人一律公开。

2. Established churches

国教

There are two established church in Britain: in England the church of England and Scotland the Church of Scotland.

英国有两大国教，在英格兰是英格兰国教，苏格兰是苏格兰教会（长老教）。

3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign mustbe a member of that Church and as "Defender of the Faith". The Church is alsolinked with the State through the House of loads. The church of England is not freeto change its form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer withoutthe consent of Parliament.

英格兰国教与君主有独特的联系。因为君主作为"国教的捍卫者"必须是此教会的一员，他在登基时必须承诺维持国教。国教还通过上议院与政府联系。没有议会同意，英格兰教会不可随意改变"国教祈祷书"中规定的礼拜仪式。

4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian, that is,government by ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office. TheMonarch is normally represented at the general assembly by the Lord HighCommissioner.

苏格兰教的管理是长老制，也就是由教士和长老治理。他们被授予圣职，王室高级代表通常代表君主光临会议。

5. Unestablished churches 

非国教教会

There are include: the Anglican Churches，the Free Churches，the Roman Catholic Church.

主要有圣公会，自由教，罗马天主教。

IV). Festival and Public Holidays

节假日

The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sunday.

其主要的节日有圣诞节，复活节，圣灵降临节。

XIV.英国体育运动

1. Many international sports were introduced by theBritish who take their leisure time very seriously. Thereis widespread participation in sport in Britain.

许多国际体育项目是由认真对待休闲时间的英国人引进的，在英国，人们广泛参与体育。

2. Football ( or "soccer" as it is colloquially called ), the most popular sport inEngland as well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where it wasdeveloped in the 19th century.

足球（口语叫"soccer"）,在英格兰和欧洲是最受欢迎的运动，其传统老家在英格兰，出现于19世纪。

3. The game "Rugby" was invented at Rugby School in Warwich shire in the early19th century.

英式橄榄球比赛19世纪初创立于沃尔威克郡的拉格比学校，因此而得名。

4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been in existence since the16th century. On an international level, 5-day Cornhill Test Matches.

板球，是英国人最典型的体育运动，自从16世纪以来已存在。国际比赛是5天的康希尔决赛。

5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the modern game originated inEngland in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight, oneof the 4 tennis "Grand Slam" tournaments.

尽管网球已打了好几个世纪，但现代比赛却起源于19世纪末的英格兰。主要比赛是一年一度的温布尔登两周赛，这是四大满贯网球锦标赛之一。

6. There is a considerable following and participation of athletics in Britain. Forexample, the London Marathon, which takes place every spring.

英国参加田径的人很多，例如伦敦的马拉松塞，每年春季举行。

7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17thcentury and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there: The HonourableCompany of Edinburgh Golfers. The Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup forprofessionals.

高尔夫球的故里是苏格兰，自从17世纪以来这项运动就在那儿盛行。全世界最古老的高尔夫俱乐部也在那里：爱丁堡高尔夫球会员荣誉公司。业余球员参加沃尔克公开赛，职业球员参加雷德尔杯。